| 互惠主义: 一种偏好，倾向于对友善和乐于助人者表现出善意和帮助，而对不友善或不乐于助人者不表现善意和帮助。 | reciprocity: A preference concerning one's actions towards others that depends on an evaluation of the others' actions or character, for example, a preference to help those who have helped you or in some other way acted well (in your opinion), and to harm those who have acted poorly. It is considered a social preference. |
| 企业: 一种经济组织形式，由资本品的私人所有者雇佣并管理劳动力从事商品和服务的生产活动，并将其产品投放市场以获取利润。 | firm: Economic organizations in which private owners of capital goods hire and direct labour to produce goods and services for sale on markets to make a profit. |
| 企业家: 指创造或率先采用新技术、新组织形式以及抓住其他机会的个人。 | entrepreneur: A person who creates or is an early adopter of new technologies, organizational forms, and other opportunities. |
| 保留选项: 当个人在特定情形中进行选择时，保留选项是指其可获得的次优替代方案。 亦称：备用选项。 | reservation option: A person's next best alternative among all options in a particular transaction. |
| 偏好: 个人对必须作出的选择或决策的每个可能结果的相对价值的描述。 | preference: Pro-and-con evaluations of the possible outcomes of the actions we may take that form the basis by which we decide on a course of action. |
| 公共品博弈: 在公共品博弈中，个体参与者可以采取对自己来说代价高昂的行动，但这一行动将为所有参与者（包括他们自己）带来收益。 | public good game: Similar to a prisoners' dilemma game with more than two people; the dominant strategy is not to contribute to the public good. |
| 公平: 根据个人正义观评估配置的方式。 | fairness: A way to evaluate an allocation based on one's conception of justice. |
| 其他条件不变: 为简化分析，经济学家通常会暂时搁置那些被认为对于研究问题不太重要的因素。这一术语的字面意思是“其他条件相同”。在经济模型中，这意味着经济分析是在“保持其他条件不变”的前提下进行的。 | ceteris paribus: Economists often simplify analysis by setting aside things that are thought to be of less importance to the question of interest. The literal meaning of the expression is 'other things equal'. In an economic model it means an analysis 'holds other things constant'. |
| 内生: 内生是指“由模型内部生成”。在经济模型中，如果一个变量的数值由模型的运行机制所决定（而非由建模者直接设定），那么这个变量就是内生变量。 | endogenous: Produced by the workings of a model rather than coming from outside the model. |
| 凡勃伦效应: 指个人通过消费豪华住宅、名牌服饰或高端车辆等彰显社会地位的商品，对他人产生的负面影响。 另请 | Veblen effect: A negative external effect that arises from the consumption of a positional good. Examples include the negative external effects imposed on others by the consumption of luxury housing, clothing, or vehicles. |
| 凸偏好: 如果某人的无差异曲线呈凸形，也就是说，当你沿着图中的无差异曲线向右移动时曲线趋于平坦，那么我们称此人具有凸偏好。这种典型形状之所以会出现，是因为当一个人拥有较多数量的某种商品（相较于其他商品）时，他们会愿意舍弃更多数量的该商品以换取一单位的另一种商品。这也就表现为他们的边际替代率沿着曲线降低。 | convex preferences: A person whose indifference curves have a convex shape—they get flatter as you move along the curve to the right of the diagram—is said to have convex preferences. This typical shape arises because when someone has more of one good (relative to another) they are willing to give up more of it in exchange for a unit of the other good: their marginal rate of substitution falls along the curve. |
| 创新租金: 创新者通过引入新技术、新型组织形式或新式营销策略获得的、超过资本机会成本的超额利润。 | innovation rent: Profits in excess of the opportunity cost of capital that an innovator gets by introducing a new technology, organizational form, or marketing strategy. |
| 创造性毁灭: 约瑟夫·熊彼特将旧技术和未能适应新技术的企业因缺乏市场竞争力而被淘汰的过程称为“创造性毁灭”。在他看来，亏损企业的失败也是具有创造性的，因为这一过程释放出的劳动力和资本品可以被重新组合利用。 | creative destruction: Joseph Schumpeter's name for the process by which old technologies and the firms that do not adapt are swept away by the new, because they cannot compete in the market. In his view, the failure of unprofitable firms is creative because it releases labour and capital goods for use in new combinations. |
| 利他主义: 利他主义是一种社会偏好：一个愿意承担成本而让他人受益的人被称为利他主义者。 | altruism: The willingness to bear a cost in order to help another person. Altruism is a social preference. |
| 利益冲突: 在经济互动中，如果一方想获得更多收益必然导致另一方收益减少，这种情况称为利益冲突。 | conflict of interest: The situation which arises if in order for one party to gain more from the interaction, another party must do less well. |
| 制度（institutions）: 一套规范人与人以及人与生物圈之间社会互动的法律和非正式规则，有时也被称为“游戏规则”。 | institution: The laws and informal rules that regulate social interactions among people and between people and the biosphere, sometimes also termed the rules of the game. |
| 劳动分工: 指生产者在生产过程中分工合作，专注于从事不同任务。 | division of labour: The specialization of producers to carry out different tasks in the production process. |
| 劳动力市场: 劳动力市场是雇主向可能同意在其指导下工作的个人提供工资的市场。经济学家认为，在这个市场中，雇主属于需求方，雇员则属于供给方。 | labour market: The market in which employers offer wages to individuals who may agree to work under their direction. Economists say that employers are on the demand side of this market, while employees are on the supply side. In this market, employers offer wages to individuals who may agree to work under their direction. Economists say that employers are on the demand side of this market, while employees are on the supply side. |
| 劳动平均产量递减: 指生产过程中随着劳动投入增加，单位劳动产出（平均产量）逐渐下降的特性。 | diminishing average product of labour: A property of a production process in which, as the input of labour is increased, the amount of output per unit of labour (the average product) falls. A situation in which, as more labour is used in a given production process, the average product of labour typically falls. |
| 劳动的性别分工: 男性和女性在有偿工作与无偿工作时长分配上存在的差异。 | gender division of labour: The ways men and women differ in how they spend their work time. |
| 十分位数，十分位组: 十分位数将一组观测样本分为十个数量相等的组别。将所有观测样本根据某个特定变量（例如收入）进行排序，第一个十分位组包含位于底部1%的观测样本（例如收入处于最底部1%的观测样本），第二个十分位组是次低的1%观测样本，第十个或最高的十分位组则是特定变量取值最高的1%观测样本。十分位数是用于划分不同组别的特定变量的临界值，例如第一个十分位数分隔了第一个十分位组和第二个十分位组，以此类推。 | decile: A subset of observations, formed by ordering the full set of observations according to the values of a particular variable and then splitting the set into ten equally-sized groups. For example, the 1st decile refers to the smallest 10% of values in a set of observations. |
| 协调博弈: 一种存在两个纳什均衡的博弈，其中一个纳什均衡帕累托占优于另一个纳什均衡。 也称为：保证博弈。 | coordination game: A game in which there are two Nash equilibria, one of which may be Pareto superior to the other. Also known as: assurance game. A game in which there are two Nash equilibria, of which one may be Pareto superior to the other. Also known as: assurance game. |
| 博弈: 一个策略互动的模型，描述了参与者、可行策略、行动顺序、参与者掌握的信息以及支付。 | game: A model of strategic interaction that describes the players, the feasible strategies, the information that the players have, and their payoffs. |
| 博弈论: 一门研究策略互动的数学分支。策略互动指每个参与者都知道自己的收益取决于所有人选择的行动。 | game theory: A branch of mathematics that studies strategic interactions, meaning situations in which each actor knows that the benefits they receive depend on the actions taken by all. |
| 占优策略均衡: 占优策略均衡是指所有参与者的策略均为占优策略的纳什均衡。 | dominant strategy equilibrium: An outcome of a game in which every player plays his or her dominant strategy. |
| 发展型国家: 一种政府通过公共投资、对特定行业的补贴、教育以及其他公共政策在推动经济发展过程中发挥主导作用的国家。 | developmental state: A government that takes a leading role in promoting the process of economic development through its public investments, subsidies of particular industries, education and other public policies. |
| 受约束选择问题: 在这类问题中，决策者需要在特定约束条件下选择一个或多个变量的值以实现某一目标（如利润最大化或效用最大化）。其中，约束条件决定了决策者的可行集（如需求曲线或预算约束）。 | constrained choice problem: This problem is about how we can do the best for ourselves, given our preferences and constraints, and when the things we value are scarce. |
| 可行边界: 由一系列点构成的曲线或直线，表示在某种商品数量给定的情形下，另一种商品可以获得的最大数量。 | feasible frontier: The curve made of points that defines the maximum feasible quantity of one good for a given quantity of the other. |
| 可行集: 在决策者所面临的经济、物理或其他约束条件下，所有可供选择的商品或结果的组合。 | feasible set: All of the combinations of the things under consideration that a decision-maker could choose given the economic, physical or other constraints that he faces. |
| 合作: 参与旨在产生共同利益的项目。 | cooperation: Participating in a common project that is intended to produce mutual benefits. |
| 同时博弈: 所有参与者同时选择策略的博弈，例如囚徒困境。 | simultaneous game: A game in which players choose strategies simultaneously, for example the prisoners' dilemma. |
| 商品（good）: 经济学家有时会在更广泛的语境下使用这个术语，用它指代个体在意并希望拥有更多数量的任何事物。除了在市场上交易的商品外，它还涵盖（诸如）“自由支配时间”或“清洁空气”。 | goods: Economists sometimes use this word in a very general way, to mean anything an individual cares about and would like to have more of. As well as goods that are sold in a market, it can include (for example) ‘free time’ or ‘clean air’. |
| 囚徒困境: 囚徒困境是一种博弈，它有一个占优策略均衡，但也存在另一种能为所有参与者带来更高支付的替代结果。因此，纳什均衡并不是帕累托有效的。 | prisoners' dilemma: A game in which the payoffs in the dominant strategy equilibrium are lower for each player, and also lower in total, than if neither player played the dominant strategy. |
| 因果、因果关系、因果性: 如果我们能够证明一个变量的变化引起了另一个变量的变化，那么我们可以认为这两个变量之间具有因果关系。相关性仅仅是评估两个事物是否同时变化，而因果性则阐释了变量间相互关联的机制，因而是一个更为严格的概念。 另请参阅：自然实验、相关性。 | causal: We can say that a relationship between two variables is causal if we can establish that a change in one variable produces a change in the other. While a correlation is simply an assessment that two things have moved together, causation implies a mechanism accounting for the association, and is therefore a more restrictive concept. |
| 固定比例技术: 一种要求各投入要素以固定比例组合的技术。如需提高产量，所有投入要素须以相同比例增加，以维持彼此间的固定比例关系。 | fixed-proportions technology: A technology that requires inputs in fixed proportions to each other. To increase the amount of output, all inputs must be increased by the same percentage so that they remain in the same fixed proportions to each other. |
| 国内生产总值（gross domestic product，GDP）: 衡量给定时期内经济中商品和服务的总产出水平。这一指标将同一国家范围内所有企业、非营利组织和政府机构所生产的所有产出加总至一个单一数值，并且确保没有重复计算。家庭生产的产品如果经由市场出售，则该部分产出也将被计入GDP。GDP可以按月份、季度或年度进行测度。 | gross domestic product (GDP): A measure of the market value of the output of final goods and services in the economy in a given period. Output of intermediate goods that are inputs to final production is excluded to prevent double counting. |
| 均衡: 均衡指的是一种可以自我维持的状态或模型结果：一旦达到这种结果，除非受到外部力量的干扰，否则不会发生变化。这里的“外部力量”指的是由模型之外因素所决定的事物。 | equilibrium: A model outcome that does not change unless an outside or external force is introduced that alters the model’s description of the situation. |
| 外生: 外生是指“由模型外部决定”。在经济模型中，如果一个变量的数值由建模者设定，而不是由模型自身的运行机制决定，那么这个变量就是外生变量。 | exogenous: Coming from outside the model rather than being produced by the workings of the model itself. |
| 外部效应，外部性 （external effect，externality）: 外部效应发生在某人的决策对他人带来利益或成本，而这些利益或成本未被决策者考虑在内时。外部效应也称为外部性。 | external effect: When a person's action confers a benefit or cost on some other individual, and this effect is not taken account of by the person in deciding to take the action. It is external because it is not included in the decision-making process of the person taking the action. Positive effects refer to benefits, and negative effects to costs, that are experienced by others. A person breathing second-hand smoke from someone else's cigarette is a negative external effect. Enjoying your neighbour's beautiful garden is a positive external effect. |
| 存量: 指在某一时点上测量的数量，例如企业的资本存量或大气中的二氧化碳含量。其数值大小与时间单位无关。 | stock: A quantity measured at a point in time, such as a firm’s stock of capital goods, or the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Its units do not depend on time. A quantity measured at a point in time. Its units do not depend on time. |
| 工业革命: 始于18世纪英国的一波技术进步和组织变革浪潮，它将一个以农业和手工业为主的经济体转变成了一个商业和工业经济体。 | Industrial Revolution: A wave of technological advances and organizational changes starting in Britain in the eighteenth century, which transformed an agrarian and craft-based economy into a commercial and industrial economy. |
| 市场: 市场使人们能够通过互惠的方式（不同于赠与）直接交换商品和服务，这种交换是自愿进行并互惠互利的（不同于盗窃和税收），并且通常不涉及个人情感（不同于朋友、家人之间的转让）。 | market: A way that people exchange goods and services by means of directly reciprocated transfers (unlike gifts), voluntarily entered into for mutual benefit (unlike theft, taxation), that is often impersonal (unlike transfers among friends, family). |
| 帕累托占优，帕累托占优的: 如果根据帕累托标准配置A比配置B更好，也就是说，至少有一个人在配置A下比在配置B下严格地更好，并且没有人变得更差，那么A帕累托占优于B。 | Pareto dominate: Allocation A Pareto dominates allocation B if at least one party would be better off with A than B, and nobody would be worse off. |
| 帕累托改进: 一种能够不使任何人受损而使至少一个人受益的改变。 | Pareto improvement: A change that benefits at least one person without making anyone else worse off. |
| 帕累托有效，帕累托效率（Pareto efficient， Pareto efficiency）: 如果不存在替代的可行配置在不使任何人境况变坏的情况下，使至少一个人变得更好，那么这种配置是帕累托有效的。 | Pareto efficient: An allocation with the property that there is no alternative technically feasible allocation in which at least one person would be better off, and nobody worse off. |
| 帕累托标准: 帕累托标准是一种比较两种配置A和B的方式。它指出，如果至少有一个人在配置A下比在配置B下严格更好（换句话说，会严格偏好A而非B），并且没有人变得更差，那么A就是对B的帕累托改进。也称为A帕累托占优于B。 | Pareto criterion: According to the Pareto criterion, a desirable attribute of an allocation is that it be Pareto efficient. |
| 平均产量: 生产要素的平均产量指的是总产量与该生产要素总投入量的比值。例如，工人的平均产量（也称为劳动生产率）是总产量除以参与生产的工人人数。 | average product: Total output divided by a particular input, for example per worker (divided by the number of workers) or per worker per hour (total output divided by the total number of hours of labour put in). |
| 序贯博弈: 参与者并非同时选择策略，并且后选择的参与者可以看到其他参与者已经选定的策略的博弈。例如，最后通牒博弈。 | sequential game: A game in which all players do not choose their strategies at the same time, and players that choose later can see the strategies already chosen by the other players, for example the ultimatum game. |
| 技术: 这是对一个生产过程的描述，该过程利用一系列原材料和其他投入（包括人力和机器的劳动）来进行生产。 | technology: A process taking a set of materials and other inputs, including the work of people and capital goods (such as machines), to produce an output. |
| 技术进步: 一种减少生产既定数量产出所需投入资源（如劳动力、机器、土地、能源和时间）的技术变革。 | technological progress: A change in technology that reduces the amount of resources (labour, machines, land, energy, time) required to produce a given amount of the output. |
| 挤出，被挤出（crowding out，crowded out）: 这个术语有两种截然不同的用法。第一种是指当经济激励取代了人们的道德或社会动机时观察到的负面效应。在研究个体行为时，激励可能会对社会偏好产生挤出效应。第二种用法是指政府支出的增加在减少私人支出方面的效应，例如在生产能力满负荷运行的经济中预期会出现的情况，或者当财政扩张与利率上升相关联时。 | crowding out: There are two quite distinct uses of the term. One is the observed negative effect when economic incentives displace people's ethical or other-regarding motivations. In studies of individual behaviour, incentives may have a crowding-out effect on social preferences. A second use of the term is to refer to the effect of an increase in government spending in reducing private spending, as would be expected for example in an economy working at full capacity utilization, or when a fiscal expansion is associated with a rise in the interest rate. |
| 搭便车者，搭便车行为，搭便车（free rider，free riding，free ride）: 某人从他人对某合作项目的贡献中获益，而自己却不作出贡献的行为，被称为搭便车，而称此人为搭便车者。 | free ride: Benefiting from the contributions of others to some cooperative project without contributing oneself. |
| 支付: 在博弈中，某个参与者的支付是指该参与者从所有参与者的联合行动确定的结果中获得的收益。 | pay-off: The benefit to each player associated with the joint actions of all the players. |
| 收入，可支配收入: 一个家庭或个人的可支配收入是指他们在不借款或使用储蓄的情况下，在纳税和从政府获得转移支付（如失业保险和养老金）后所能支出（“支配”）的最大值。这也是一个家庭或个人在一定时期内保持财富不变的最大消费金额。可支配收入是以一个时间段（如一年）来衡量的。 | income: The amount of labour earnings, dividends, interest, rent, and other payments (including transfers from the government) received by an economic actor, net of taxes paid, measured over a period of time, such as a year. The maximum amount that you could consume and leave your wealth unchanged. |
| 收入效应: 指个人收入增加对其商品需求量（即个人选择购买的数量）产生的影响，这种影响源于收入增加扩大了商品购买的可行集。当某种商品的价格发生变化时，这种变化会通过扩大或缩小可行集产生收入效应，同时还会引起替代效应。 | income effect: The effect, for example, on the choice of consumption of a good that a change in income would have if there were no change in the price or opportunity cost. |
| 政治制度: 政治制度决定了政府的选举方式，以及这些政府如何制定和执行影响着全体或大多数人口的决策。 | political system: A set of principles, laws, and procedures that determine how governments will be selected, and how those governments will make and implement decisions that affect all or most members of a population. |
| 效用: 衡量个体对某一结果的价值判断的数值指标。当两个结果均可行时，具有较高效用而不是较低效用的结果会被优先选择。 | utility: A numerical indicator of the value that one places on an outcome, such that higher-valued outcomes will be chosen over lower-valued ones when both are feasible. |
| 效用函数: 效用函数是对个人在一种或多种商品上偏好程度的数学表示。它为每一种可能的商品组合赋予一个数值，用以代表个人从该组合中获得的效用。 | utility function: A utility function is a mathematical representation of a person’s preferences for one or more goods. It gives a numerical value to the amount of utility the person obtains from each possible combination of goods. |
| 无差异曲线: 一条将所有提供给个体相同效用水平的商品组合连接起来的曲线。 | indifference curve: A curve of the points which indicate the combinations of goods that provide a given level of utility to the individual. |
| 替代效应: 指当商品价格发生变化时，由于该商品相对价格变化所导致的消费量变化。价格变化还会通过扩大或收缩可行集产生收入效应。 | substitution effect: The effect for example, on the choice of consumption of a good that is only due to changes in the price or opportunity cost, given the new level of utility. |
| 最优反应: 在博弈论中，参与者的最优反应是指给定其他参与者已采用的策略，能够给该参与者带来最偏好结果的策略。 | best response: In game theory, the strategy that will give a player the highest payoff, given the strategies that the other players select. |
| 最低可接受报价: 在最后通牒博弈中，提议者提出的不会被回应者拒绝的最低报价。在更一般的谈判情境下，它是会被接受的最不利的报价。 | minimum acceptable offer: In the ultimatum game, the smallest offer by the Proposer that will not be rejected by the Responder. Generally applied in bargaining situations to mean the least favourable offer that would be accepted. |
| 最后通牒博弈: 在这个博弈中，第一个参与者向第二个参与者提出一个蛋糕分配方案，第二个参与者可以选择接受，那么双方按照第一个参与者提出的方案分得蛋糕；或者拒绝，那么双方都得不到任何东西。 | ultimatum game: An interaction in which the first player proposes a division of a 'pie' with the second player, who may either accept, in which case they each get the division proposed by the first person, or reject the offer, in which case both players receive nothing. |
| 机会成本: 指在选择某一行动方案时，所放弃的次优选择可能带来的收益。例如：“我决定去度假而不是接受一份暑期工作。那份工作既乏味无趣又薪资低廉，因此度假的机会成本相对较低。” | opportunity cost: The opportunity cost of some action A is the foregone benefit that you would have enjoyed if instead you had taken some other action B. This is called an *opportunity* cost because by choosing A you give up the opportunity of choosing B. It is called a *cost* because the choice of A costs you the benefit you would have experienced had you chosen B. |
| 比较优势: 当某人或某国生产某特定商品的相对成本（相对于生产另一种商品的成本）低于其他生产者时，则其在该商品的生产上具有比较优势。 | comparative advantage: A person or a country has a comparative advantage in the production of a particular good if the cost to them of producing it, relative to the cost of another good, is lower than for another person or a country. A person or country has comparative advantage in the production of a particular good, if the cost of producing an additional unit of that good relative to the cost of producing another good is lower than another person or country’s cost to produce the same two goods. |
| 民主: 一种在理想情况下赋予所有公民平等政治权力的政治制度，以言论自由、集会自由和新闻自由等个人权利为特征；同时，它还包括公平选举制度，几乎所有成年人都有资格参与投票，如果政府在选举中失败就会下台。 | democracy: A political system, that ideally gives equal political power to all citizens, defined by individual rights such as freedom of speech, assembly, and the press; fair elections in which virtually all adults are eligible to vote; and in which the government leaves office if it loses. |
| 流量: 指按单位时间测量的数量，例如每周收入或年度碳排放量。 | flow: A quantity measured per unit of time, such as weekly income, or annual carbon emissions. A quantity measured per unit of time, such as annual income or hourly wage. |
| 消费: 指用于购买消费品的支出。消费品既包括使用期限较短的商品和服务，也包括使用期限较长的商品，后者被称为耐用消费品。 | consumption: Expenditure on both short-lived goods and services and long-lived goods, which are called consumer durables. |
| 消费品: 任何可供消费者购买的商品，包括使用期限较短的商品以及使用期限较长的商品（被称为耐用消费品）。 | consumer good: Any good that can be bought by consumers, including both short-lived goods and long-lived goods, which are called consumer durables. |
| 演化经济学: 一个研究经济变迁过程的分支学科，研究内容包括技术创新、新社会规范的传播和新制度的形成等内容。 | evolutionary economics: An approach that studies the process of economic change, which includes technological innovation, the diffusion of new social norms, and the development of novel institutions. An approach that studies the process of economic change, including technological innovation, the diffusion of new social norms, and the development of novel institutions. |
| 激励: 一种影响不同行动方案收益与成本的经济奖励或惩罚。 | incentive: Economic reward or punishment, which influences the benefits and costs of alternative courses of action. |
| 炫耀性消费: 指个人通过购买商品和服务来公开展示自己的社会和经济地位。 | conspicuous consumption: The purchase of goods or services to publicly display one's social and economic status. |
| 生产函数: 生产函数以图形或数学形式描述了生产过程中投入要素数量与产出数量之间的关系。 | production function: A graphical or mathematical expression describing the amount of output that can be produced by any given amount or combination of input(s). The function describes differing technologies capable of producing the same thing. |
| 生产要素: 任何用于生产过程的投入品都被称为生产要素。生产要素包括劳动、机器和设备（通常称为资本）、土地、能源和原材料等多种类型。 | factors of production: The labour, machinery and equipment (usually referred to as capital), land, and other inputs to a production process. |
| 生存水平: 当生活水平低于该水平时（基于消费或收入进行衡量），人口数量将开始下降。 | subsistence level: The level of living standards (measured by consumption or income) below which the population will decline. The level of living standards (measured by consumption or income) such that the population will not grow or decline. |
| 相关性: 数据样本中观察到的两个变量之间的统计关联。如果一个变量的数值增加（如人们的收入）常常伴随着另一个变量的数值增加（如受教育年限），我们称这两个变量之间存在正相关关系。如果一个变量的数值增加（如空气污染）伴随着另一个变量的数值降低（如预期寿命），我们称这两个变量之间存在负相关关系。即使两个变量之间存在相关关系，这也并不意味着它们之间存在因果关系，例如空气污染可能不是我们观察到的预期寿命降低的原因。 | correlation: A statistical association in which knowing the value of one variable provides information on the likely value of the other, for example high values of one variable being commonly observed along with high values of the other variable. It can be positive or negative (it is negative when high values of one variable are observed with low values of the other). It does not mean that there is a causal relationship between the variables. |
| 相对价格: 一种商品或服务的价格相对于另一种商品或服务的价格（通常表示为两种价格的比率）。 | relative price: The price of one good or service compared to another (usually expressed as a ratio of the two prices). The price of one good or service compared to another (usually expressed as a ratio). |
| 看不见的手博弈: 看不见的手博弈指存在一个唯一的纳什均衡且该均衡帕累托有效的博弈。 | invisible hand game: A game in which there is a single Nash equilibrium and where there is no other outcome in which both players would be better off or at least one better off and the other not worse off. |
| 社会互动: 在这种情况下，每个人所采取的行动不仅影响自身结果，也会影响他人的结果。 | social interactions: A situation in which the actions taken by each person affect other people's outcomes as well as their own. |
| 社会偏好: 如果一个人的效用不仅取决于自己的支付，还取决于其他人的状况，那么这个人具有社会偏好。 | social preferences: A person with social preferences cares not only about how her action affects her personally, but also about how it affects other people. |
| 社会困境: 在社会困境中，个人为了追求私人目标而独立采取行动导致的结果，劣于人们共同行动时的可行结果。 | social dilemma: A situation in which actions, taken independently by individuals in pursuit of their own private objectives, may result in an outcome that is inferior to some other feasible outcome that could have occurred if people had acted together, rather than as individuals. |
| 社会规范: 当个人的行为可能影响他人时，大多数社会成员对于在特定情境下人们应该做什么的共识。 | social norm: An understanding that is common to most members of a society about what people should do in a given situation when their actions affect others. |
| 私有财产: 若某物的所有者有权排除他人使用、有权从中获益，并有权将其与他人交换，该物即为私有财产。 | private property: Something is private property if the person possessing it has the right to exclude others from it, to benefit from the use of it, and to exchange it with others. |
| 稀缺性: 如果一种物品具有价值，并且获取更多数量该物品需要付出机会成本，我们就称这种物品是稀缺的。 | scarcity: A good that is valued, and for which there is an opportunity cost of acquiring more. |
| 等成本线: 一条由不同投入要素组合形成的直线，在该直线上各投入要素组合对应的生产成本都是相同的。 | isocost line: A line that represents all combinations that cost a given total amount. |
| 策略: 在意识到自己和他人的结果取决于自己和他人选择的策略时，一个人可能选择的行动（或行动计划）。 | strategy: An action (or a course of action) that a person may take when that person is aware of the mutual dependence of the results for herself and for others. The outcomes depend not only on that person's actions, but also on the actions of others. |
| 策略互动: 一种社会互动，其中参与者知道自己的行动如何影响他人以及他人的行动如何影响自己。 | strategic interaction: A social interaction in which the participants are aware of the ways that their actions affect others (and the ways that the actions of others affect them). |
| 纳什均衡: 纳什均衡是指在一个经济结果中，任何一方都无法通过单方面改变自己的行动来获得一个自己更偏好的结果。用更正式的表达方式来说，在博弈论中，纳什均衡被定义为博弈中每个参与者的策略组成的一组策略，其中每个参与者的策略都是对其他所有参与者所选策略的最优反应。 | Nash equilibrium: A set of strategies, one for each player in the game, such that each player's strategy is a best response to the strategies chosen by everyone else. |
| 经济人: 经济人用来描述一种完全追求个人自身利益作出决策的经济行为者。 | homo economicus: Latin for ‘economic man’, referring to an actor assumed to adopt behaviours based on an amoral calculation of self-interest. |
| 经济体系: 一种具有独特基本制度的经济活动组织方式。过去和现在的经济体系包括中央计划经济（例如2世纪的苏联）、封建经济（例如中世纪早期的欧洲大部分地区）、奴隶经济（例如19世纪废除奴隶制前美国南部和加勒比地区的种植园经济），以及资本主义（当今世界上大多数经济体）。 | economic system: A way of organizing the economy that is distinctive in its basic institutions. Economic systems of the past and present include: central economic planning (e.g. the Soviet Union in the 20th century), feudalism (e.g. much of Europe in the early Middle Ages), slave economy (e.g. the US South and the Caribbean plantation economies prior to the abolition of slavery in the 19th century), and capitalism (most of the world’s economies today). |
| 经济学: 经济学研究人们在生产和谋生过程中如何与他人及自然环境互动，探讨这些互动方式如何随时间演变，并分析其在不同社会中呈现出的差异性。 | economics: The study of how people interact with each other and with their natural surroundings in providing their livelihoods, and how this changes over time. |
| 经济成本: 指采取某一行动的直接成本（包括货币成本和努力成本等）加上机会成本。 | economic cost: The out-of-pocket cost of an action, plus the opportunity cost. |
| 经济租金: 经济租金是个人从所选行动中获得的净收益（货币或其他形式）与次优替代方案（或保留选项）的净收益之间的差额。 | economic rent: A payment or other benefit received above and beyond what the individual would have received in his or her next best alternative (or reservation option). |
| 绝对优势: 在使用相同数量投入要素生产某一特定商品的过程中，若某人或某国能比其他生产者产出更多该商品，则其在该商品的生产上具有绝对优势。 | absolute advantage: A person or a country has an absolute advantage in the production of a particular good if, given a set of available inputs, they can produce more of it than another person or country. A person or country has this in the production of a good if the inputs it uses to produce this good are less than in some other person or country. |
| 自然实验: 一种实证研究方法，它利用两个群体（或两个经济体）由外部因素产生的条件差异（比如不同的法律、政策或气候）来开展研究。通过比较这两组群体的结果，可以得到这些条件对我们所关心结果的影响效应。这种方法的有效性建立在群体间条件差异由随机事件所引起这一基础上。例如，如果群体间政策差异是由其他可能影响结果的因素所产生的，那么自然实验的方法也就不再适用。 | natural experiment: An empirical study exploiting naturally occurring statistical controls in which researchers do not have the ability to assign participants to treatment and control groups, as is the case in conventional experiments. Instead, differences in law, policy, weather, or other events can offer the opportunity to analyse populations as if they had been part of an experiment. The validity of such studies depends on the premise that the assignment of subjects to the naturally occurring treatment and control groups can be plausibly argued to be random. |
| 规模报酬不变: 当生产活动呈现规模报酬不变的特征时，将生产过程中的所有投入要素按相同比例增加，产出也会按相同比例增加。企业的长期平均成本曲线形状既取决于生产过程中的规模报酬特征，也取决于规模变化对其投入要素价格的影响。 | constant returns to scale: These occur when doubling all of the inputs to a production process doubles the output. The shape of a firm's long-run average cost curve depends both on returns to scale in production and the effect of scale on the prices it pays for its inputs. |
| 规模报酬递减，规模不经济，回报递减: 当生产表现出规模报酬递减时，所有投入按相同比例增加，但产出增加的比例低于投入增加的比例。企业长期平均成本曲线的形状取决于生产中的规模报酬以及生产规模对投入价格的影响。 | decreasing returns to scale: These occur when doubling all of the inputs to a production process less than doubles the output. |
| 规模报酬递增、规模经济、报酬递增（increasing returns to scale， economies of scale， increasing returns）: 当生产过程呈现规模报酬递增的特征时，若按相同比例增加所有投入，产出将以更高的比例增加。企业长期平均成本曲线的形状既取决于生产过程中的规模报酬特征，也取决于规模变化对其投入要素价格的影响。 | economies of scale: These occur when doubling all of the inputs to a production process more than doubles the output. The shape of a firm’s long-run average cost curve depends both on returns to scale in production and the effect of scale on the prices it pays for its inputs. Also known as: increasing returns to scale. |
| 购买力平价（purchasing power parity，PPP）: 购买力平价是一种价格指数，衡量了相较于给定年份某一参照国的物价水平（如211年美国的物价水平），在其他国家和年份购买同一篮子商品和服务的成本差异。 | purchasing power parity (PPP): A statistical correction allowing comparisons of the amount of goods people can buy in different countries that have different currencies. |
| 贸易利得，从交换中获得的收益: 交易各方相较于未交易情形时获得的收益。 | gains from trade: The benefits that each party gains from a transaction compared to how they would have fared without the exchange. |
| 资本主义: 一种以企业为主要经济组织形式的经济体系。在此体系下，资本品的私人所有者雇佣劳动力生产商品和服务，并在市场中出售以获取利润。资本主义经济体系中的主要经济制度包括私有财产、市场和企业。 | capitalism: An economic system in which the main form of economic organization is the firm, in which the private owners of capital goods hire labour to produce goods and services for sale on markets with the intent of making a profit. The main economic institutions in a capitalist economic system, then, are private property, markets, and firms. |
| 资本品，资本: 资本品（有时简称为“资本”）是指在生产过程中使用的耐用且昂贵的非劳动投入（例如机械、设备、建筑物）。然而，一些对使用者而言成本为零的基本投入（例如空气、水、知识）并不被计入资本品之列。 | capital goods: The durable and costly non-labour inputs used in production (machinery, buildings) not including some essential inputs, e.g. air, water, knowledge that are used in production at zero cost to the user. |
| 边际变化: 当两个变量\(x\)和\(y\)相关时，边际变化的影响是指随着\(x\)的微小增加，\(y\)所产生的相应变化。如果\(y\)是\(x\)的连续函数，那么\(y\)的边际变化就是\(y\)相对于\(x\)的变化率，即该函数的导数。 | marginal change: When two variables, x and y, are related to each other, the effect of a marginal change is the change in y that occurs in response to a small increase in x. If y is a continuous function of x, the marginal change in y is the rate of change of y with respect to x: that is, the derivative of the function. |
| 边际效用: 指增加一单位商品的消费所带来的额外效用。 | marginal utility: The additional utility resulting from a one-unit increase of a given variable. |
| 边际替代率（marginal rate of substitution，MRS）: 指一个人在两种商品之间愿意作出的权衡取舍。在无差异曲线上的任意一点，边际替代率（MRS）等于该点斜率的绝对值。 | marginal rate of substitution (MRS): The trade-off that a person is willing to make between two goods. At any point, this is the slope of the indifference curve. |
| 边际转换率（marginal rate of transformation，MRT）: 指为了获取额外一单位某种商品所必须放弃的另一种商品的数量。在任意一点上，它等于可行边界斜率的绝对值。 | marginal rate of transformation (MRT): A measure of the trade-offs a person faces in what is feasible. Given the constraints (feasible frontier) a person faces, the MRT is the quantity of some good that must be sacrificed to acquire one additional unit of another good. At any point, it is the slope of the feasible frontier. |
| 配置: 在经济互动中，一个配置是指商品或其他有价值的物品在所有参与者间的特定分布。 | allocation: A description of who does what, the consequences of their actions, and who gets what as a result (for example in a game, the strategies adopted by each player and their resulting payoffs). |
| 预算约束: 预算约束是一个等式，表示在恰好用尽全部预算情况下，个人能够获得的所有商品和服务组合。 | budget constraint: An equation that represents all combinations of goods and services that one could acquire that exactly exhaust one's budgetary resources. |
| 鹰鸽博弈: 一种协调博弈，其中参与者希望协调以与对手采取相反的行动。在纳什均衡（鹰，鸽）和（鸽，鹰）中，鹰的支付更高；但双方都选择鹰对双方来说都是最差的结果。 | hawk-dove game: A game in which there is conflict (when hawks meet), sharing (when doves meet), and taking (by a hawk when it meets a dove). |